A person in the life of the Republic: Cicero

Marcus Tullius Cicero was a Roman politician and philosopher. He was a novus homo, a plebeian who was elected to the patrician position of consul. Cicero embodied the values of the Republic. In a time of political turmoil, Cicero stood by his Republican values and fought for the survival of the Republic. Refer Image1 and animation 

Cicero's early life

Cicero was born in 106 BC in Arpinum, outside Rome. Cicero's family were wealthy landowners in Arpinum. Cicero was a good student and received the best education his parents could provide. He studied Roman law and had a love of ancient Greek philosophy.

As a young man, Cicero served in the army during the Marian-Sullan Civil War. Although Cicero came from the same town as Marius, Cicero supported Sulla. Cicero was not a strong soldier, but he had a keen eye for politics.

When Sulla retired from his dictatorship in 80 BC, Cicero foresaw political turmoil in his absence and fled to Greece until Rome had found peace once again.

While in Greece, Cicero pursued his interest in learning. He developed his skills as an orator under the rhetorician Molon of Rhodes. Cicero also visited and conversed with Republicans, such as Publius Rutilius Rufus, who had gone into exile during the Marian-Sullan wars.It was during Cicero's time in Greece that his staunch support of Republicanism was formed.

Cicero was determined to enter the cursus honorum and become consul of Rome. The chances of Cicero's election to consul were slim. Cicero was not a patrician. No one in Cicero's family had been consul, making Cicero a novus homo, or new man. The position of consul was open only to patricians. Very few plebeians had been elected to consul.

In 75 BC, Cicero served as a quaestor in western Sicily. He earned a name for himself as a good lawyer with a clear and unique speaking style. His popularity grew as many of his most famous orations were published for reading, such as Ad Verrem, Pro Caelio, and Pro Murena.He represented many prominent Romans in the law courts.

In 69 BC, Cicero was elected as aedile. By 66 BC, he was praetor. Throughout his political career, Cicero had fought against corruption but upheld the values of the Roman Republic. He became a symbol for nobility.

In 63 BC, Cicero was elected consul.

Cicero as Consul - the Catilinarian conspiracy

There were many unhappy Romans in the Republic during Cicero's consulship. People were tired of the political squabbling, the rich getting richer and the poor getting poorer. Although many Romans put their faith in the Republic to solve their problems, some wealthy patricians took matters into their own hands. Refer Image2

Lucius Sergius Catiline was a disgruntled (unhappy) aristocrat. He had failed at climbing the cursus honorum and was impatient for political power and wealth. Catiline and a number of other disappointed Roman patricians formed a conspiracy to overthrow the Republic.

Cicero learned of the conspiracy and acted quickly to neutralise the threat. As consul, he passed the senatus consultum ultimum, declaring a state of emergency. Cicero drove Catiline out of the city, but Catiline's followers remained.

Cicero made a number of aggressive speeches, attacking Catiline and his followers. Without Catiline, the conspiracy lost its momentum. Catiline and his conspirators planned to flee to the Gallic Aloobroges tribe. The leaders of the Aloobroges tribe were loyal to Rome and handed over Catiline's followers who were forced to confess their crime.

Cicero led the deliberations on the punishment for the conspirators. It was illegal in Rome to put Roman citizens to death without trial but Cicero argued that this case was an exception. Cicero ordered the conspirators to be taken to the Tullianum, a notorious Roman prison. There the conspirators were strangled to death.

Cicero was honoured by the Roman people for his role in suppressing the conspiracy. He was given the honorific title Pater Patriae, the first given for a civic accomplishment. Until it was bestowed upon Cicero, the Pater Patriae had been a military honour only.

Exile and recall

After Cicero's consulship, Roman politics took a turn for the worse. The two statesmen Pompey and Julius Caesar made a secret political alliance in a bid to fulfil their individual political ambitions. Cicero was unaware of their alliance and believed that he could sway Pompey to help save the Republic from the ambitions of generals and politicians.

By 58 BC, the tide of Roman politics had turned against Cicero. The Roman politician Publius Clodius Pulcher introduced a law, exiling any man who had put Roman citizens to death without trial, directly targeting Cicero for his treatment of Catiline's conspirators.

Cicero went into exile and spent time at his private estate writing letters to his friend Atticus and other political associates.

By late 57 BC, Pompey had changed his mind about Cicero and urged the Romans to recall him. Cicero returned triumphantly to find he had lost no influence with the Romans during his exile.

Cicero's death

By 50 BC, the Roman political scene was increasingly dominated by Pompey and Caesar.An intense power struggle between the two resulted in Caesar invading Italy and Rome in 49 BC at the head of his army.

Cicero fled Rome with Pompey and the other Republicans. It became apparent as Pompey lost battle after battle to Caesar, that Pompey was not capable of restoring the Republic. Cicero returned to Rome after Caesar's victory at Pharsalus. Pompey was killed in Egypt and Caesar was elected dictator for life. Cicero withdrew from public life in protest at Caesar's dictatorship. Refer Image3

It was during this time that Cicero wrote his philosophical treatises (essays). He wrote on the composition of arguments and oratory, and on friendship. Cicero's most famous work was De Republica. De Republica was written as a discussion between the Roman statesman Scipio Aemilianus and his friends in 129 BC. They discuss the pros and cons of various political systems including monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. By the end of the discussion, they agree that the ideal state is a mixture of all three political systems. Throughout the work, Cicero gives a brief history of Rome. He also describes the ideal Roman statesman, justice system, education system and society.

Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC. His political partner Marc Antony and adopted heir Octavian seized control. It became clear that the Republic would not be restored in his lifetime. Cicero began to publicly criticise Marc Antony's political agenda.

In another struggle for power, Marc Antony and Octavian united against Cicero and put his name on the proscription lists.

Cicero was hunted down and killed at his private villa at Formia. He was decapitated in December 43 BC and his head was put on display in the Roman Forum, a sad end for Rome's greatest Republican.