Foreign policy and contact in the Empire

By the end of the Roman Republic in 27 BC, Rome controlled lands from Asia Minor and Greece to Spain and North Africa. Over 150 years of conquest and consolidation, Roman territory was expanded dramatically and Rome controlled the largest empire in Western history.

Rome had always followed an expansionist foreign policy. By the Empire, foreign policy was determined by the will of the emperor. While Augustus decreed that the Roman Empire should not be extended beyond its existing boundaries, many Roman emperors believed that glorious military campaigns would win them support and popularity.

Expansionism and revolts - 'good' and 'bad' emperors

Most of Augustus' successors adopted an active foreign policy, aggressively expanding Rome's borders into the barbarian unknown. Refer Image1

Tiberius (AD 14-37) was a fine military commander who adhered to Augustus' policy of non-expansion. Tiberius settled the Roman frontier on the Rhine (in modern Germany) and strengthened the Danube area.

Caligula (AD 37-41) did a great deal to undo the hard work of Augustus and Tiberius. He believed that he could add new territories to Rome by simply claiming them. He marched to Gaul and then proclaimed that he had annexed Britain. He had the king of Mauretania (in north Africa) murdered and then annexed the kingdom for its wealth. Caligula's policies won him few friends and made Rome's relationship with these kingdoms strained in the future.

Claudius (AD 41-54) did much to repair the damage done by Caligula. Claudius was a keen imperialist who believed that Rome had a moral duty to civilise the entire known world. While he was emperor, he conquered Mauretania legitimately and recovered the lost territories of Syria, Asia Minor and Thrace (in northern Greece). Claudius' greatest military victory was won in Britain where he brought the majority of Britain under Roman rule. To celebrate his victory, Claudius held a victory parade in Rome and named his son Britannicus.

Claudius was succeeded by the wayward Nero (AD 54-68) who took more interest in art, music and athletics, than battles fought on the frontiers of Rome. Nero's lack of interest in the provinces led to governors abusing their privileges. In Britain, the governor forced the British tribes to pay large amounts of taxes. In AD 60, the British tribes staged a rebellion against their Roman overlords led by Boudicca (also spelled Boudicea), queen of the Iceni tribe. The rebellion was violent and cost the Romans over 70 000 lives and three cities. The Romans crushed the revolt with difficulty.

The Romans were faced with many rebellions from AD 68 to AD 81. The Jews staged strong resistance against the harsh methods of the Romans. In AD 73, the Romans besieged the mountain of Masada, the last stronghold of Jewish resistance. The Jews refused to be taken captive by the Romans, all of them committing suicide before the Romans stormed the fortress.

Trajan (AD 98-117) expanded Rome to its greatest extent. Trajan led the Roman army against Dacia (modern-day Romania) in AD 107, Armenia in AD 114 and Mesopotamia in AD 117. He also annexed the kingdom of the Nabataeans, which included parts of modern Jordan and Saudi Arabia. He was one of the finest military commanders in Roman history. He commemorated his victory on Trajan's Column, a 30m-tall pillar covered with reliefs depicting his military campaigns.

Consolidation

By the time of Hadrian's reign (AD 117-38), Rome was at the height of her power. He spent the majority of his reign travelling through the Empire, which stretched from the Euphrates River in the east, Egypt and North Africa in the south, Spain and Britain in the west and Gaul and Dacia in the north. The Empire covered an area of 4000 kilometres from west to east. There were more than 50 million people living under Roman rule.

Hadrian recognised the difficulties in controlling an empire of such vast size. Hadrian took note of the revolts and rebellions that plagued the frontiers of Rome. He decided that it was time to consolidate Rome's empire rather than concentrate on expanding it. Refer Image2 and animation

When Hadrian visited Britain, he constructed a wall that acted as the frontier of the civilised and barbarian world. The wall stretched 120 kilometres east to west across the northern part of England.

Hadrian's fear for Rome's empire was very real. Within 100 years, Rome would be ravaged by invading barbarians.

Invasion and decline

After Hadrian, Roman emperors turned away from expansionist policies, preferring instead to concentrate on centralising control over the empire. Rome was being harassed by tribes from the north-east called the Germani. Refer Image3

In AD 370, another tribe, the Huns, invaded Rome. They came from Central Asia into Europe and were led by Attila. They took over Rome and ravaged (destroyed) the city. By AD 451 Attila was defeated. This was the last great victory for the Romans.

In AD 395, the Roman empire was split in two, the eastern empire ruled from Constantinople and the western empire ruled from Milan. The western empire was eventually overrun by barbarians.

In AD 401, the Visigoth army, led by Alaric, marched against the city of Milan where the emperor Honorius was residing. The Roman emperor was forced to flee to Ravenna.

In AD 409 the Vandals invaded Spain and eventually travelled to North Africa where they set up their own kingdom.

In AD 410 Alaric invaded Rome. The barbarian tribesmen rampaged through Rome's streets for three days.

Rome was invaded again by the Vandals in AD 455. The Vandals spent twelve days looting Rome. Their departure plunged Rome into chaos. The emperors of the western empire were helpless to defend Rome from barbarian incursions (invasions).

In AD 476, the German General Odoacer sent Romulus Augustulus into exile and proclaimed himself king of Italy. While the eastern empire at Byzantium flourished for another 1000 years, Rome and the western empire crumbled.