Warfare and the life of a soldier

Warfare during the Celtic Britain

War was a regular occurrence in Celtic society. The Celts were loud and frightening in their battles, and their battles were often chaotic.

At the start of a fight, each side shouted insults at the other, boasted of their bravery, sung battle songs and blew their war horns. The Celts would then use spears and swords to attack their enemy at full speed. Celtic soldiers often chose to fight to their death rather than to admit defeat. After a battle, the Celts usually collected the heads of their enemy and kept them as sacred objects. Refer Image 1

In times of war, every able man was expected to join the army. The sons of the noble Celtic families would become the most respected warriors. Celtic soldiers fought for glory, honour and to defend their tribes. They were not, however, trained to fight together. Although the Celtic armies were very large, they lacked discipline, tactics and battle plans. It was therefore impossible for them to organise a large-scale attack against the Romans when they invaded Britain.

Weapons of Celtic Britain

Celtic warriors used swords, spears, javelins, round pebbles and wooden clubs as their weapons.

In early Celtic history, swords had short blades which were only useful for hand-to-hand fighting. From 300 BC, swords were made with longer blades, which enabled warriors to attack their enemy from horseback.

Celtic warriors often went into battle naked and without any armour in the belief that their physical strength would intimidate their enemy. They painted their bodies with swirling patterns using a blue dye called woad. They washed their hair with clay and water to make it look threatening. They wore a torc (a necklace made of twisted metal) around the neck which they believed would help protect them. Celtic warriors also used long shields to protect themselves. The shields were made of a flat sheet of wood covered with leather, and were oval or rectangular in shape. Refer Image 2

It is thought that the Celts also invented chain mail - flexible armour made by interlinked metal rings, used to protect the body. As chain mail took a long time to make, only the most important warriors wore it.

The Celts were proud of their chariots and their horsemanship. Their chariots were lighter and more mobile than a wagon and could be used in hunting or fighting. Each chariot held two men: one charioteer to hold the reins and steer the horse, and one warrior to fight. The warriors often rode the chariots to the battlefield, and then fought on foot. The Celts used chariots in their battles until the 1st century AD.

Warfare during Roman Britain

The Roman army was one of the most efficient in the world, due to its history of continuously engaging into conquests for territorial expansion. At the time it invaded Britain in 43 AD, it was at its strongest.

Organisation

Roman armies consisted of two parts - citizen warriors and non-citizen warriors. Only Roman citizens who were born in Rome or Italy were allowed to become legionaries.

The Roman army was divided into different legions, each contained around 5000 to 6000 foot soldiers, who were named legionaries. The legions were organised into centuries or groups of 80 soldiers. Alongside the legions were the auxiliary regiments with around 500 to 1000 men. These men were usually non-citizens, and were foreign fighters recruited from other provinces. They could only become citizens once they had retired after 25 years of service.

The Roman armies were much more organised than the Celtic armies. Roman soldiers were trained to fight together and were strictly disciplined. Soldiers would march into battle in a line with their shields, about four feet apart. They then began throwing their pila at the enemy. A pilum was a six-foot javelin, which the Romans hurled at the enemy before they used their swords. They fought with their swords and used shields to protect themselves. In the case of an onslaught of enemy arrows, the soldiers would lift their shields together over their heads to form a roof, like the 'shell' of a tortoise, to protect themselves. This famous tactic was called testudo. Refer Image 3

During peacetime, the Roman army had three main duties. The soldiers acted as law enforces to combat minor civil disorders, as a body to enforce taxation, and as skilled administrators and engineers to the provincial governor. Refer animation

Life of a Roman soldier

In the Roman Army all soldiers were paid professionals and were primed and ready for action at any time. Their lives were not easy, as they constantly lived far from home to defend the provinces of the Roman Empire. They were not allowed to get married. Most Roman men, however, were happy to volunteer to serve in the army. Roman soldiers were granted many benefits during and after their 25 years of serving the army. A legionary had a secure job and was paid regularly, and was able to master a skill or trade. Once retired, legionaries would receive land and a regular income to support themselves. Most legionaries were also good engineers and craftsmen. They also had the opportunity to rise up to the position of a centurion, the officer in command of a century.

Initially, only landowners could serve in the army, but from the 1st century BC, anybody who was literate, fit and over 17 years of age, could become a soldier.

Roman soldiers had a very strict training regime, even in times of peace. They had to march three times a month, learn fighting tactics, and practice pilum throwing and sword-craft. As the Roman officers gave their instructions and orders in Latin, all the non-citizen soldiers from the provinces had to learn Latin as part of their training.

Weapons of Roman Britain

The weapons of each legionary included a short sword, a dagger, and a pilum. He also wore protective iron armour, a metal helmet on his head and carried a large curved shield. The soldiers in the auxiliary regiments usually had smaller shields than the legionaries.

Another effective weapon of the Roman army was a ballista, a large war machine that catapulted arrows and massive pieces of rock. It was used by Julius Caesar during his conquest of Gaul and on both of his expeditions to conquer Britain.

Army Camps

Camps were a temporary form of settlement that the Romans established to keep their armies under control. Each camp would have enough facilities for an army. Forts were permanent settlements for the legions of the Roman army. They could hold up to 5000 men and were oblong in shape with four gateways and were usually surrounded by a ditch.