Warfare and the life of soldiers

Introduction

The armies of Sumer and Akkad represented the high point of military development of the Bronze Age. The constant wars among the city-states of Sumer for 2000 years provided the need for the development of military technology and techniques. No society of the Bronze Age was more advanced in terms of military weaponry and technique than Ancient Sumer. The Sumerian army produced six major new weapons and defensive systems, setting the standard for other armies of the Bronze Age.

The army

Around 4000 BC, conflicts developed among the city-states of ancient Mesopotamia. Warfare arose as the city-states fought over boundaries and control of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers for transportation and irrigation. Around 2800 BC, Kish became the first city to dominate the whole of Sumer. Kish's supremacy, however, was challenged by the city of Lagash, which launched a conquest against its Sumerian neighbours. Lagash extended its power beyond Sumerian lands.

The most well-known period in Sumerian military history was from 3000 BC to 2316 BC, when Sargon the Great launched a military campaign to unite Mesopotamia into a single state. This period was marked by constant wars among the major city-states and against foreign enemies. One of the common foreign enemies of Ancient Sumer were the Elamites (from modern-day Iran).

Within a decade, Sargon had extended his conquests from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea and to the Taurus Mountains of Turkey. Sargon the Great was the first military dictator.

By 2400 BC, Sumerian kings had largely abandoned their religious functions to the priests. This allowed the kings to increase their control over civil matters. The kings became the leaders of the army. Sumerian troops fought in a phalanx formation (rows of armed foot soldiers) with an eight-man front. Fighting in a phalanx required training and discipline and is an indication that Sumer had a standing professional army. Refer Image 1

Sargon's armies were comprised of professional soldiers and had a high degree of military organisation. The need for a standing army was the result of the constant state of war during Sargon's reign. The armies consisted mostly of infantry (foot soldiers).

Excavations from the fourth millennium BC showed foot soldiers in copper helmets and heavy cloaks carrying short spears. Light infantrymen carried battle-axes, daggers and spears. Other weapons used by Sumerian soldiers included slings, maces, swords and simple bows. Refer Image 2

Fortune-tellers, who sacrificed animals and looked for omens about the king's military plan, were also part of the army.

The first recorded war in ancient Sumer

The first war recorded in ancient Sumer was fought between Lagash and Umma in 2525 BC. These two Sumerian cities, located 18 miles apart, fought over possession of the region of Guendena. In this war, Eannatum of Lagash defeated the king of Umma.

The commemorative stele (stone or wood slab) that Eannatum erected to celebrate his victory has been found by historians. The stele was excavated in fragments and was known as 'The Stele of Vultures' because of the vultures depicted on it. The stele represented the first important picture of war in ancient Sumer.

Weapons in ancient Sumer

In the ancient world, military technology arose in response to the practical needs of the battlefield. Two thousand years of war among the city-states in Sumer provided the opportunity for many military innovations.

The soldiers in ancient Sumer wore helmets, which were made of copper and had a leather lining or cap underneath. Helmets could help the soldiers to resist the attack of a battle mace (a weapon with a wooden handle and a heavy head made from stone or metal), an extremely dangerous weapon against a soldier's bare head. The presence of a well-crafted helmet in Sumer indicated a major development in military technology which would even drive the mace from the battlefield. Refer Image 3

The Sumerian invention of the chariot, a four-wheeled vehicle drawn by onagers (wild donkeys), ranks among the major military innovations in history. The cart of the chariot was a woven basket. The wheels had a solid, three-piece design. As chariots were bulky, it is thought that they were used for battlefield transportation rather than attack vehicles. Chariots were symbolic of the culture of early river civilisations, the first civilisations in Ancient Western Asia.

Sickle-swords (swords with crescent shaped blades) were the primary infantry weapon of the Sumerians. It is believed that the Sumerians invented this important weapon around 2500 BC.

The bronze socket axe remains one of Sumer's major military innovations. When the Sumerians introduced the use of plate body armour, it was quickly followed by the development of the bronze socket axe. By 2500 BC, Sumerian axes had a narrower blade and strong socket, which made them capable of piercing through bronze-plate armours. The bronze socket axe became one of the most devastating weapons of the ancient world, and remained in use for 2,000 years.

Thecomposite bow was another Sumerian contribution to weaponry. The composite bow may have been invented during the reign of Naram Sin, Sargon's grandson (2254 BC-2218 BC). The composite bow, with a pull of 2-3 times that of a simple bow, could easily penetrate leather armour, and even the bronze armour of that time. The composite bow was a very convenient weapon, both in horseback fighting and chariot fighting. This new weapon remained a basic implement of war for the next 1500 years.